During the Han dynasty (206BCE 220CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" HuangLao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.[4]. The Zhou belief in the mandate of heaven (the functional equivalent of the will of the Lord on High) differed from the divine right of kings in that there was no guarantee that the descendants of the Zhou royal house would be entrusted with kingship, for, as written in the Shujing (Classic of History), heaven sees as the people see [and] hears as the people hear; thus, the virtues of the kings were essential for the maintenance of their power and authority. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family. Ren is fundamental to become a junzi.[70]. For example, the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam was devastating, but over the last few decades Vietnam has been re-developing in a very fast pace. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism, ChinaKnowlwdge.de - Confucius and Confucianism, Asia Society - Center for Global Education - Confucianism, Ancient History Encyclopedia - Confucianism, United Religions Initiative - Confucianism. Confucianism advocates love with distinctionsone always loves one's family first and then moves outward. The duke Jing, of Qi, asked Confucius about government. The concept of heaven (tian), unique in Zhou cosmology, was compatible with that of the Lord on High (Shangdi) in the Shang dynasty. [106] Faced with ever-increasing complexity at scale, modern societies must build hierarchies to coordinate collective action and tackle long-term problems such as climate change. [94] In 2009, Zhou Beichen founded another institution which inherits the idea of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, the Holy Hall of Confucius ( Kngshngtng) in Shenzhen, affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture of Qufu City. Instead, the scholar Mencius, who was born more than a century after Confucius died, adapted his philosophy and preached in different states. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. In modern times, waves of opposition and vilification showed that Confucianism, instead of taking credit for the glories of Chinese civilisation, now had to take blame for its failures. Starting in 2000, the US Religion Census began to make religious diversity a priority, trying to go beyond the major denominations to count . Divine right no longer was an exclusive privilege of the Zhou royal house, but might be bought by anyone able to afford the elaborate ceremonies and the old and new rites required to access the authority of Tian.[80]. Bell proposes a model wherein aspiring meritocrats take hyper-selective exams and prove themselves at the local levels of government before reaching the higher levels of government, where they hold more centralized power. [95][96] It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that was unified in 2015 in the Church of Confucius ( Kngshnghu). [118] Because they believe that promotion should depend upon peer evaluations only, Bell and Wang argue against transparencyi.e. [74] While the Shang identified Shangdi as their ancestor-god to assert their claim to power by divine right, the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the Mandate of Heaven. The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics". [12], Confucian liturgy (called r, or sometimes simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: zhngtng, meaning 'orthopraxy') led by Confucian priests or "sages of rites" (; ; lshng) to worship the gods in public and ancestral Chinese temples is preferred on certain occasions, by Confucian religious groups and for civil religious rites, over Taoist or popular ritual.[13]. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. In a much-discussed passage, women are grouped together with xiaoren (, literally "small people", meaning people of low status or low moral) and described as being difficult to cultivate or deal with. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect." [48] Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors. Confucianism is one of the most influential religious philosophies in the history of China, and it has existed for over 2,500 years. Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.[58]. The term Confucianism is derived from Confucius, the conventional name for Master Kong, the most revered sage of this religious tradition. Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr.. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty. Author of. There are many characteristics of the junzi: he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. Lord on High may have referred to the ancestral progenitor of the Shang royal lineage, but heaven to the Zhou kings, although also ancestral, was a more-generalized anthropomorphic god. Rn (, 'benevolence' or 'humaneness') is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion. Muslims make up about 1.8 percent of China's population, accounting for around twenty-two million people . [107], Bell and Wang propose two justifications for political hierarchies that do not depend on a "one person, one vote" system. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372289BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. Some argue therefore that despite Confucius's disdain with martial culture, his teachings became of much relevance to it. [30] Rn, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. [85], Since the 2000s, there has been a growing identification of the Chinese intellectual class with Confucianism. Both the theory and practice of Confucianism have indelibly marked the patterns of government, society, education, and family of East Asia. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness. 551-479 BCE) has been portrayed as a teacher, advisor, editor, philosopher, reformer, and prophet. In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that the Tin gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue ( d). The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. [120], Another key question is whether Confucian political thought is compatible with liberalism. [6] According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette's conceptualisation of Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred",[7] Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human lifeand especially human relationshipsas a manifestation of the sacred,[8] because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature (xng ), which has a transcendent anchorage in Heaven (Tin ). [53], As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. [82] As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of perceived moral decline. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372-289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. It is the virtue-form of Heaven. [14], Tin (), a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars,[36] earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to "Heaven and Earth" (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. [105], In Just Hierarchy, Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. In the past few decades, there have been talks of a "Confucian Revival" in the academic and the scholarly community,[18][19] and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches. Though closer to a philosophy than a true religion, Confucianism was a way of life for ancient Chinese people, and it continues to influence Chinese culture today. In other words, while examinations may ensure that early-career officials are competent and educated, how is it thereafter ensured that only those who rule well get promoted? Confucius created the model of junzi, gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual. Meanwhile, Islam promotes the unity of Muslims regardless of ethnicity or familial ties, creating an environment of extremely extroverted people. [42], Zigong, a disciple of Confucius, said that Tin had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). Fundamentally, then, social disorder may stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was zhngmng (; zhngmng; 'rectification of terms'). [29] The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does Tian ever say? Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit . [44], Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. [130], The French philosopher Voltaire, Leibniz's intellectual rival, was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. [20] In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established a national Confucian Church (; ; Kngshnghu) in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations. Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the state of meditation that participants enter prior to engage in the ritual acts. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Zhougong was said to have helped consolidate, expand, and refine the feudal ritual system. [88], In contemporary China, the Confucian revival has developed into various interwoven directions: the proliferation of Confucian schools or academies (shuyuan ),[87] the resurgence of Confucian rites (chuntng ly ),[87] and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the popular level, such as the Confucian communities (shq rxu ). [11] Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of the Tin. [156], Ever since Europeans first encountered Confucianism, the issue of how Confucianism should be classified has been subject to debate. Li (; ) is a classical Chinese word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy. [101], Its influence has also extended to other countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius. [40] There are such a number of uses in Chinese thought that it is not possible to give one translation into English. [142] Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. [134] The New Life Movement in the early 20th century was also influenced by Confucianism. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. "[60] Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. Later, Zhu Xi defined junzi as second only to the sage. Today, it has been credited for shaping East Asian societies and overseas Chinese communities, and to some extent, other parts of Asia. In the Chinese language, the character r meaning "scholar" or "learned" or "refined man" is generally used both in the past and the present to refer to things related to Confucianism. [25], Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of the Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism. She stresses the complementarity and equal importance of the male and female roles according to yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts the dominance of the male. They call this approach "progressive conservatism", a term that reflects the ambiguous place of the Confucian tradition within the Left-Right dichotomy. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. At the cultural level, for instance, Confucianism, its institutions, and its rituals offer bulwarks against atomization and individualism. [137], After Confucianism had become the official 'state religion' in China, its influence penetrated all walks of life and all streams of thought in Chinese society for the generations to come. On spirituality, Confucius said to Chi Lu, one of his students: "You are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve spirits? The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. A global perspective is needed to universalize its concerns. It focuses on innate human goodness and the importance of interpersonal human relationships. [152][153], Further analysis suggests, however, that women's place in Confucian society may be more complex. Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the rujia, scholarly tradition, that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion. [24], According to Zhou Youguang, r originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. [44] The Confucian classic Xiaojing ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written around the Qin-Han period, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xio. These are accompanied by the classical Sz (), that singles out four virtues, one of which (Y) is included among the Five Constants: There are still many other elements, such as chng (; , honesty), sh (, kindness and forgiveness), lin (, honesty and cleanness), ch (; , shame, judge and sense of right and wrong), yng (, bravery), wn (; , kind and gentle), ling (, good, kindhearted), gng (, respectful, reverent), jin (; , frugal), rng (; , modestly, self-effacing). [87], In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established,[86] and guoxue started to be implemented in public schools on all levels. Confucianismincluding the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzihas always recognised the Right of revolution against tyranny. There are approximately 6.1 million followers of Confucianism worldwide. There is no deity worshipped in Confucianism, though the worship of ancestors and of Confucius himself as a sage master and teacher are practiced. Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers. [143] Some critics have also accused the prominent Song neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi for believing in the inferiority of women and that men and women need to be kept strictly separate,[146] while Sima Guang also believed that women should remain indoors and not deal with the matters of men in the outside world. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth. [155] More recently, some scholars have also begun to discuss the viability of constructing a "Confucian feminism". [25] Five Classics (, Wjng) and the Confucian vision [83] In his view, the power of Tian is immanent, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by humaneness and rightness, decency and altruism. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. [22]:7, The term "Traditionalist" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance. Following Dewey's account of democracy as a way of life, he points to the participatory features of his local model: citizens still get to have a democratic lifestyle, participate in political affairs, and be educated as "democratic men". While Jiang's model is closer to an ideal theory than Bell's proposals, it represents a more traditionalist alternative. The aim of this study is to analyze the influence of Confucianism on health behaviors, health outcomes and medical decisions. Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. [78] Cultures in other parts of the world have also conceived these stars or constellations as symbols of the origin of things, the supreme godhead, divinity and royal power. The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.". The Lunyu ( Analects ), the most-revered sacred scripture in the Confucian tradition, was probably compiled by the succeeding generations of Confucius's disciples. Confucianism is the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. [3] Confucianism was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221206BCE), but survived. [103], Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the imperial examination system in China. The junzi (, jnz, "lord's son") is a Chinese philosophical term often translated as "gentleman" or "superior person"[69] and employed by Confucius in the Analects to describe the ideal man. They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the "Three Principles of the People" with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China. [54] The Five Constants are:[54]. He, Baogang & Warren, Mark (2020). In 8.19, he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with Tin. More generally, Bai argues that his model marries the best of meritocracy and democracy. An estimated 5 to 6 million people follow Confucianism worldwide. [162][163] But using a broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterisation of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation",[164] Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities. You will learn about the central elements of Confucian religion . Shangdi was conceived as the first ancestor of the Shang royal house,[74] an alternate name for him being the "Supreme Progenitor" ( Shngji). In 17.19 Confucius says that tin spoke to him, though not in words. Confucianism advocates for the atomization of society through clans. Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th5th century bce and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. [22]:190197 Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use r.
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