When officers conduct a crackdown in a target area they are not normally assigned to, there is a heightened risk that they will not be able to distinguish the truly suspicious from the ordinary as effectively as locally assigned officers.28, Expense. These providers collectively ensure that someone is there to answer the individuals calls for help and that the individuals get the help they need quickly. Police often use crackdowns in combination with other responses. Drug Use and Drug Programs in the Washington Metropolitan Area. Focus was placed on two elements of the gun violence problem: illicit gun trafficking[3] and gang violence.[2]. During field interviews, they asked users for information concerning drug rip-offs and robberies, or for information on phantom suspects. 0000018431 00000 n Reducing burglary by crackdown and consolidation. The older members were told that their entire syndicate would be targeted for increased enforcement if they did not control their younger, more-violent members. At the outset, the strategy was sponsored by the National Institute of Justice and was co-directed by David M. Kennedy, Anthony A. Braga, and Anne M. Piehl of Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government. Caeti, T. (1999). Officers used informants to spread the word that the operation was continuing. "Community-Oriented Policing: Assessing a Police Saturation Operation." There were sixteen targeted gangs and thirty-seven control gangs. [Full text]. New York State Takes the Next Step in Saving Lives: Through Occupant Restraint Enforcement." A lock ( [16] A 34% reduction in homicide has been recorded in Indianapolis after the launch of the Indianapolis Violence Reduction Partnership. More and better studies are needed, of course, but in the final analysis, no amount of research knowledge completely substitutes for the good judgment police decision-makers must exercise, taking many factors into account. Beyond individual case and service outreach managers, there is also a need for an interagency and inter-service group to help coordinate all providers working together on providing services effectively (see, for example, Braga and Weisburd, 2015, p. 59). Behavioral Assessment 2:33-41. In total, there were a total of fifty-three gangs analyzed. Violence was particularly concentrated in poor inner city neighborhoods including Roxbury, Dorchester, and Mattapan. 0000005357 00000 n Drug enforcement crackdowns that reduce overall drug use will also reduce the need for cash to buy drugs, and thereby provide the added benefit of reducing some of the need to commit crimes to get cash. Footnote 21 Broadly speaking, a ceasefire is any arrangement in which a conflict party commits to a temporary or permanent cessation of violence. 48103). completed and the elements of what is now known as the Operation Ceasefire intervention mapped out;implementation began in early 1996. Washington , D.C. : Brookings Institution Press. 327 0 obj << /Linearized 1 /O 329 /H [ 1267 1997 ] /L 534152 /E 52591 /N 78 /T 527493 >> endobj xref 327 42 0000000016 00000 n [Full text], --- (1988). Project design began in 1995 and it was implemented in 1996. . Operation Ceasefire was first implemented in May 1996 as a coordinated, citywide strategy aimed at deterring juvenile and gang firearm violence. San Francisco, CA 94102, San Francisco: (415) 436-7200 Operation Ceasefire was instituted in Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis and these cities achieved reductions in gun homicide of 25 to over 60 percent and, here in California, Stockton reduced gun homicide by more than 43 percent between 1998 and 2001. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 21(1):38-53. For crackdowns to be effective, they must be sufficiently strong and long: strong enough doses of police intervention for long enough periods. Police Chief 66(7):25-28. It is one of the first and necessary steps in a peace process aimed at transforming or settling a violent conflict. For focused deterrence to work, the targeted criminal population must be aware of the deterrence strategy. The Police Response to Gangs: Case Studies of Five Cities . Street robberies declined. [Full text]. In M. Tonry and N. Morris (eds. See the problem-specific guide on Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes [Full text] for a discussion of the different challenges presented by open and closed drug markets. Safe Streets Clean Sweep (SSCS), Metro-Dade Police Department (Metro-Dade, "I Won't Do Manhattan ": Causes and Consequences of a Decline in Street Prostitution . The attributes we identified for analysis captured whether the studies intervention descriptions included the following: As shown in Table 1, sites that (1) attempted to precisely duplicate Boston's Operation Ceasefire or had an alternate comprehensive strategy, (2) explicitly deterred violence (rather than drug dealing), (3) had formal intervention meetings, and (4) leveraged some form of ongoing community support for individuals outside of police presence did significantly better, on average, than those that did not.4, View the focused deterrence strategy guide, Find those at risk of being involved with violence, Provide services to those who want to change, Have community members provide ongoing support, Enhance enforcement for persons and groups that persist in crime, Analyzing the Evidence for Focused Deterrence, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12353/pdf, http://cebcp.org/evidence-based-policing/what-works-in-policing/research-evidence-review/focused-deterrence/, https://nlp.stanford.edu/IR-book/html/htmledition/hierarchical-clustering-1.html, https://nnscommunities.org/uploads/DMI_Guide.pdf, https://nnscommunities.org/uploads/GVI_Guide_2016.pdf, those who will run formal intervention meetings, those who will run ongoing communications with intervention recipients and those in the community monitoring them, outreach links to community organizations and other agencies that will provide the services. A systematic review of focused deterrence strategies by Braga and Weisburd (2012a) suggests that these kinds of policies do, indeed, have significant positive effects on crime. The key is to be aware of the various possibilities for displacement, develop intelligence systems that inform you how the problem is shifting, and counteract it if possible. Officers used an undercover, reverse-sting operation, arresting buyers for solicitation. Cease Fire [Goldstein Award Winner], Boston reduce the number of drug-related street crimes (especially crimes committed to get cash for drugs), improve the quality of life in the target area, and. Nevertheless, the approach undoubtedly has the potential to work, although in this instance the consolidation served only to prolong the impact of the initial crackdown, rather than offer a sustainable solution. Cohen and Ludwig (2002); Chermak, McGarrell, and Weiss (2001); Eck and Maguire (2000); Davis and Mateu-Gelabert (1999); Caeti (1999); Boydstun (1975). Operation Ceasefire (also known as the Boston Gun Project and the Boston Miracle [1]) is a problem-oriented policing initiative implemented in 1996 in Boston, Massachusetts. Uchida, Forst, and Annan (1992); Zimmer (1990). Criminology 37(3):541-580. Clean Sweep, Georgia State University Police Department, 2008, Operation Tip: Agencies that want to use focused deterrence to reduce gang violence should focus their intervention meetings and other efforts on deterring future violence as opposed to, for example, deterring drug activity and hoping for an indirect effect on violence. To make the two outcomes roughly consistent for presentation in the table, reported drops in crime for high-risk areas and populations were reduced by 50 percent to make them more comparable to entire regions. London : Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. They used a variety of evaluation methods, some stronger than others. [17] The Cincinnati Initiative to Reduce Violence (CIRV) has shown a 41% reduction in street group member-related homicides. Braga, Anthony A., and David L. Weisburd, "The Effects of Focused Deterrence Strategies on Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence,", Braga, Anthony A., and David L. Weisburd, "Focused Deterrence and the Prevention of Violent Gun Injuries: Practice, Theoretical Principles, and Scientific Evidence,", Braga, Anthony A., David L. Weisburd, and Brandon Turchan, "Focused Deterrence Strategies and Crime Control: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence,". Most crackdowns include high police visibility, but some do not, notably those in which undercover or plainclothes police are involved. You need to stop. [2][10] Similarly, in Cincinnati in 1997, which had an population of about 333,210, between 800 and 1,000 individualsless than 0.3% of the populationwere identified as being group related, and were responsible for 75% of the city's homicides. At these meetings, the working group will set forth a two-part message: (a) gun violence must stop immediately or criminal justice agencies will intervene quickly and forcefully against those responsible; and (b) the group is there to support the gang members and youth with intensive services and employment. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. They may nevertheless contain useful information Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News . When a crackdown emphasizes police visibility only, additional enforcement and sanctions may or may not result; the enhanced visibility alone is intended to produce the deterrent effect. Reducing gun violence: Evaluation of the Indianapolis Police Departments directed patrol project. In a true randomized experiment of a focused deterrence strategy, one would need to create a control group of about half of the highest-risk offenders who would not receive any interventions. Another source for guidance on group violence is the extensive guide prepared by the National Network for Safe Communities (2016). There are five key tasks typically involved in focused deterrence. They also casually leaked information to users about pending drug sweepssome of which occurred, and some of which did not. If you do, we will provide you with every support we can. There are also financial and staffing implications of adopting a cycle of cycle of crackdown and consolidation, and the neighborhood must buy-in to the concepts of the program for it to be effective. (1999). "Impact of Community Policing in Four Houston Neighborhoods." The Operation Ceasefire model is being used in California under the program name Safe Community Partnership (SCP). Theft from Motor Vehicle Initiative, Neighborhood There are a number of possible pitfalls to crackdowns, as discussed below. 34 Aggressive field interrogations35 and traffic enforcement36 are among the specific crackdown tactics reported to have contributed to reductions in robbery rates. Braga , A., D. Weisburd, E. Waring, L. Green Mazerolle, and F. Gajewski (1999). Prostitutes, like drug dealers, sometimes adapt to crackdowns by devising new ways to negotiate transactions (e.g., via beepers and cellular telephones). With Kennedy 's detailed account of the project, if a Police Chief approached me and asked me to implement operation ceasefire, . [Full text]. [14] The Chicago extension of the national Project Safe Neighborhoods initiative, has shown 37% reductions in homicide,[15] while the Lowell, Massachusetts, Project Safe Neighborhoods efforts have produced 44% reductions in gun assault. To support this part of the message, agencies typically investigate the individuals to find evidence of serious crimes for which the group might be prosecuted. Officers established the area as a high-intensity zone and warned drug users that they would arrest them for any and all crimes committed there. TheOperationCeasefireinterventionis,initsbroadestsense,adeterrence strategy. Organizing a working group that will design and implement the local strategy: A city will organize a working group that includes representation from public and private employment training and placement providers, criminal justice agencies (including District Attorneys office, Police Department, Sheriffs Department, and Probation Office, and the U.S. Attorney), community leaders, gang outreach workers, and public and private social service agencies that serve youthful offenders, youth at risk of violence, and gang members. Focused deterrence, also called pulling levers, is a focused strategy that attempts to deter specific criminal behavior through fear of specific sanctions (or levers), as well as anticipation of benefits for not engaging in crime. Davis and Lurigio (1996); Worden, Bynum, and Frank (1994). Ceasefire operates as a system that implements interventions that include the knowledge and coordination of all of the city's law enforcement and criminal justice agencies. The campaigns' deterrent value wears off after time, however. Police Chief 67(7):24-29. Main Office: Works, Lancashire Constabulary, 2004, Sex [4] The participating core agencies included the Boston Police Department; Massachusetts departments of probation and parole; the Suffolk County district attorney; the office of the United States Attorney; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services (juvenile corrections); Boston school police; and gang outreach and prevention streetworkers attached to the Boston Community center program. The pros and cons of the cease fire agreement Let's take a preliminary look at the advantages and disadvantages of the cease fire agreement, from an Israeli and traditional pro-Western. Street Sweep, Arizona Department of Public Safety, 1999, Project Police also posted fliers on storefronts, on electrical boxes, on planters, on windows, at bus stops, and in places identified as drug-dealing sites. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS American Journal of Police 9(1):43-74. The studies listed are not of equal value: some were better implemented than others, some were better evaluated than others. Reduction at Low Income Housing Development, El Operation Hot Pipe, Smoky Haze, and Rehab. ); searching vehicles and interviewing drivers at roadblocks or checkpoints; and. (1999); Jacobson (1999), Weiss and McGarrell (1999); Farrell, Chenery, and Pease (1998), Novak et al. Wright, A., and K. Pease (1997). 0000023245 00000 n Aggressive Priest, T., and D. Carter. There is no universally accepted definition of a ceasefire, and the use of the term varies widely. "Developing More Effective Strategies for Curbing Prostitution." 0000001191 00000 n Motivated drug buyers and sellers can adapt to police crackdownsfor example, by finding alternative ways to contact one another and negotiate a deal (e.g., via cellular telephones, beepers, steerers).70 Compared with newer users, more experienced and seriously addicted users are probably less likely to be deterred by drug crackdowns, and more likely to adapt to them. Agencies typically publicize the sanctions against groups and persons with the media; they also emphasize the sanctions in future intervention meetings as examples of what could happen if individuals do not change course. "Traffic Enforcement and Crime: Another Look." ), The Modern Gang Reader . 0000028681 00000 n European Journal of Operational Research 88:231-250. Chermak, McGarrell, and Weiss (2001); Caeti (1999); Fritsch, Caeti, and Taylor (1999); Eck and Spelman (1987); Police Foundation (1982); Kelling et al. Large increases in police patrol in a subway system also appear to have been effective in reducing robbery. You should not spread resources too widely just to avoid this criticism, lest you undermine the crackdown's potential to have a significant impact. They might also work with federal authorities to identify federal offenses, which have the advantage of putting individuals at risk of being sent to remote federal correctional facilities. Constabulary, 2004, Operation Ward, Joe H., Jr., Hierarchical Grouping to Optimize an Objective Function,. It's one thing to realize a quick dramatic decrease in some types of offenses, but if that's at the cost of creating great antagonism toward the police on the part of youth and future generations, then police departments are going to have to deal with the consequences of that hostility.25, But loss of public support is not inevitable. Impact on police-community relations. This is accomplished primarily at group meetings known as "call ins" or "forums," attended by representatives of the working group and the particular gang members and young people. There is also a need for staff who conduct outreach to service providers to help make services available. Modern Policing and the Control of Illegal Drugs: Testing New Strategies in Two American Cities. Displacement occurs when crime patterns (methods, places, or times) change as a result of a crime prevention effort . Impact on the rest of the criminal justice system. increased severity or certainty of sanctions, and. Fontana Serious Traffic Offender Program, Harbor It has informed and does inform political, administrative, and judicial policy to so great a degree that deterrence has been described a primary and essential postulate of almost all criminal law systems., In either case, he will look to the future, not the past: for as Plato says, no wise man punishes any one because he has sinned, but that he may sin no more: for what is past cannot be recalled, but what is to come may be checked.. case managers who will help individuals get the services they need. (1983, 1985); Boydstun (1975). Or publicity about a crackdown in a target area might cause offenders simply to avoid that area and commit crimes elsewhere. (Middlesbrough, UK), 2007, Neighborhood Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. For further information on reducing gun-related crime, see the problem-specific guide on Gun Violence Among Serious Youth Offenders [Full text]. Equity is crucial for long-term sustainability and for the support of those expected to partake in the incentive side of focused deterrence. (Braga et al., 2001). subsequently committed by the parties involved. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice. Thousand Oaks , Calif. : Sage. British Journal of Criminology 41(4):738-745. D (2005). Researchers are less interested in studying these initiatives precisely because they don't believe they will be able to systematically learn from them. Responses other than just crackdowns are often recommended. 0000003241 00000 n This includes providing social services, "soft skills" training, ongoing support (such as mentoring and mutual support programs), and job training and placements. Schnelle, J., R. Kirchner, J. Casey, P. Uselton, and M. McNees (1977). Worden, R., T. Bynum, and J. Frank (1994). We identified 10 quasi-experimental evaluations and 1 randomized controlled trial. (This is based on industry agreement that actionable hot spots generally contain around 50 percent of a jurisdictions crime.). 0000003951 00000 n Novak, K., J. Harman, A. Holsinger, and M. Turner (1999). Fixture, Lancashire Constabulary, 2003, Operation Davis and Lurigio (1996); Caulkins, Larson, and Rich (1993); Smith et al. Crackdowns, generally defined, take many different forms. increased perception of offenders and potential offenders that they are at higher risk of arrest (i.e., evidence that they noticed the crackdown and altered their behavior because of it). The Network also provides an implementation guide on the core model for deterring open-air drug dealing, the Drug Market Intervention (2015) (PDF). "Police Crackdowns on Drug Abuse and Trafficking." Over the past 15 years, numerous cities across the country have successfully reduced relatively high rates of gang and youth gun violence through a strategy that brings together and assigns specific roles to criminal justice agencies, organizations that provide employment training and placement, social service agencies, community and faith leaders, and gang outreach programs. Directly focusing on known burglars has proved successful in at least one carefully planned initiative in the United Kingdom.40 There, police sought to identify all known and active burglars in a target area and to take them out of circulation, mainly through arrest. Many reports relating to crackdowns refer to aggressive police methodsaggressive patrol, aggressive enforcement, and so forth. A suite of services could include the following (which is not intended to be a complete list): Tip: There is a strong need for case managers to work with at-risk individuals and providers to ensure that the individuals receive the services they need. With focused deterrence, the police and representatives from the community engage with those at high risk of being a party to violence and convey clear incentives for avoiding violence and deterrents for engaging in violence. "Problem-Oriented Policing: Actions and Effectiveness in San Diego ." UK), 2006, Tackling The crackdowns this guide covers are larger-scale special operations authorized at a policy-making level; they are not crackdowns undertaken by a single, beat-level officer. (1974). 12. On 17 February, President Zelensky's Chief of Staff Andriy Yermak learned of an alleged Russian plot to sabotage Vladimir Putin's "special military operation", involving the Russian Chief of the. American Journal of Police 13(3):59-94. Justice Quarterly, 12(4): 673-694. For more on the risks of and alternatives to zero tolerance, see our guide to that strategy. Washington , D.C. : Police Foundation. The U.S. Attorney plays an integral role in the program. Optimal Control Applications and Methods 19:169-184. Capowich, G., and J. Roehl (1994). (1995). Heavily populated with seasoned and hard-core drug users, the street remained an entrenched drug market, stabilized by word-of-mouth marketing. In addition to taking more enforcement actions, officers might also be encouraged to apply the principles of problem-oriented policing or situational crime prevention as circumstances warrant.5, Specific actions officers might take as part of a crackdown include. It represented an innovative partnership between researchers and practitioners to assess the city's youth homicide problem and implement an intervention designed to have a substantial near-term impact on the problem. Others don't need to get caught; just hearing about a crackdown deters them. 0000050440 00000 n "Have Changes in Policing Reduced Violent Crime? Evaluations of police operations are always complicated. [Full text]. [2] Within two years of implementing Operation Ceasefire in Boston, the number of youth homicides dropped to ten, with one handgun-related youth homicide occurring in 1999 and 2000. Seneca, L. Annaeus, "De Ira," in L. Annaeus Seneca. [Full text], Matthews, R. (1997). Weiss, A., and S. Freels (1996). Police Research Series, Paper 109. Policing Pubs: Evaluation of a Licensing Enforcement Strategy . [Full text]. . Overzealous and poorly managed crackdowns can violate citizens' rights.27 Where officers receive overtime pay for crackdowns, they risk being accusedhowever fairly or unfairlyof conducting them primarily to earn that pay. Braga , A. Area Cadillac/Corning Neighborhood Project, Los Angeles Police Department, The studies reported two types of crime reductions. New York : LFB Scholarly Publishing. "Police Crackdowns and Slowdowns: A Naturalistic Evaluation of Changes in Police Traffic Enforcement." Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 22(2):171-190. Wilson, J., and B. Boland (1978). Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. They are not meant as general punishments of residents in communities with violent gangs. Ross, H. (1994). Police identified three types of crack users: habitual users-facilitators, binge users, and partyers (who came to buy crack and then went home). The Emmy nominated documentary Operation Ceasefire gives an inside look at the creation and implementation of the program through the testimonies of its key figures. Journal of Criminal Justice 22(5):437-444. Braga, Anthony A., and David L. Weisburd, The Effects of "Pulling Levers" Focused Deterrence Strategies on Crime, Oslo, Norway: Campbell Collaboration, March 4, 2012a. they were submitted. NIJ Research Preview. Crackdowns that focus on behavior that might be connected to burglary can help reduce burglary rates along with other crime rates. Ceasefire Diversity. 0000029482 00000 n 9 Thus, a constant level of police resources dedicated to a crackdown will prove increasingly effective. Among them are zero tolerance and sweeps . Several well-evaluated studies have shown that crackdowns targeting gun offenses can reduce gun-related crime. . Connors, E., and H. Nugent (1990). Crackdowns are usually expensive.29 Many crackdowns require overtime funds to provide the necessary staffing. Millie, A. 5 Specific actions officers might take as part of a crackdown include arresting offenders; issuing citations; conducting field interviews; Equity (real and perceived fairness) is a major topic for todays policing to consider in any program that attempts to target a specific demographic via such an intervention as deterrence. Now this movement had its pros and cons. Eventually, the drug market will collapse for lack of buyers and sellers. Reducing Gun Violence: The Boston Gun Project's Operation Ceasefire. Davis, R., and P. Mateu-Gelabert (1999). Kinlock, T. (1994). Several other terms are commonly used in connection with crackdowns, but their use is also often imprecise. Some crackdowns are concentrated in small geographic areasperhaps a couple of square blocks or a housing complex. The effect of the operation is essentially superficial and temporary. 0000004317 00000 n Probably to a lesser degree, crackdowns can also be effective by taking high-rate offenders out of circulation. "Scheduling Crackdowns on Illicit Drug Markets." (1974). Operation Crackdown ( London), Newark Foot Patrol Experiment Police Foundation (n.d.). Typical participants in the intervention meetings, beside police and social services representatives, include family members, families of crime victims (e.g., mothers, grandmothers of murder victims), or other influential community members, all attempting to persuade high-risk individuals to desist from engaging in violence and other serious crimes. Josi, Donahue, and Magnus (2000); Wright and Pease (1997), Weidner (1999); Davis and Lurigio (1996); Kennedy (1993). A 2011 Campbell Collaboration Systematic Review of the strategies, and others related to them, concluded that there is now "strong empirical evidence" for their crime prevention effectiveness. The general elements include the following: See Cohen and Ludwig (2002) and Smith (2001) for examples of crackdown cost-effectiveness analyses. Respectful and Effective Policing: Two Examples in the South Bronx . The machine-learning algorithm divided the studies into four groups. 1974). help in obtaining identification cards (including a drivers license, a non-driver state identification card, or a social security card). levers strategy was hailed as an unprecedented success (see, e.g. Weisel, D., and E. Painter (1997). Of course, drug stashes are vulnerable to theft and police confiscation. 2. They range from highly planned, well-coordinated, intensely focused operations in which officers know the operational objectives and perform their duties precisely, to loosely planned initiatives in which officers are given only vague guidance about objectives and tasks, sometimes being told little more than to get out there and make your presence felt. Campbell, D., and H. Ross (1968). Chaiken, J., M. Lawless, and K. Stevenson (1974). Thousand Oaks , Calif. : Sage. The rest of this essay highlights resources and activities to run focused deterrence interventions successfully. The project, over the course of time, became unique, as it: A core participating agency was defined as one that regularly participated in the Boston Gun Project Working Group over the duration of the project. Cajon and University Avenue Traffic Accident Reduction, F-STOP: As of June 26, 2017: Zimring, Franklin E., and Gordon J. Hawkins. Police reasoned that if that group disappeared, the bingers and partyers would have to look elsewhere. Policing Drug Hot Spots . Aerial Response Team (DART), Washington State Patrol, 2009, El [Full text], Jacobson, J. Law Enforcement News 23(461):9. [8], Research on the Ceasefire method has found a profound and so far invariant connection between serious violence and highly active criminal groups. Burns, L., and C. Coumarelos (1993). Pros and Cons. Finally, this approach requires regular and accurate monitoring of burglary trends as an early warning system so that the start of any decay in impact can be spotted and acted upon by a re-application of the initial crackdown, which would then be followed by further consolidation work. Kelling, G., T. Pate, D. Dieckman, and C. Brown (1974). Traffic enforcement crackdowns have had mixed results in reducing traffic crashes. See the problem-specific guides on Robbery at Automated Teller Machines [Full text] and Crime Against Tourists [Full text] for further information on addressing specific types of robbery. t"a}A&`wMMq6ZXc9AxaqcpHJs0]'y|1q>%'hyM_EZ92N=b*p2|]eiqBEf:y%8kzN*PoMh DWSWoWa DzQ.`$UDS(lcCw+u>IWLtU_P {\:R}=Z_VBju9~l~ m)lXuc!z~V$v5`"+f(SN! They appeal to demands that order be restored when crime and disorder seem out of control, Research and practice have demonstrated that crackdowns can be effectiveat least in the short termat reducing crime and disorder in targeted areas, and can do so without necessarily displacing the problem.12, Furthermore, the positive effects of crackdowns sometimes continue after the crackdowns end (these ongoing effects are sometimes referred to as residual deterrence effects ).13 In addition, crackdowns can reduce crime and disorder outside the target area or reduce offenses not targeted in the crackdowns, a phenomenon criminologists commonly refer to as a diffusion of benefits .14.
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